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In the brain, sexual differentiation starts before birth and results from a combination of sex chromosomes in brain tissue, sex hormones produced by the testes or ovaries and the environment.

Previous research has shown that STK33 is enriched in the testis and is specifically required for the formation of functional sperm.

Over the past couple of decades researchers have found that long-distance signaling goes beyond a few glands and organs—the pancreas, thyroid, testes, and ovaries—that spill out familiar hormones such as insulin and testosterone.

Researchers found high levels of microplastics in human and dog testes.

They found that in male mice dysbiosis affects the physiology of the testes, as well as metabolite composition and hormonal signalling.